Examining The Efficacy Of The World Trade Organization International - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1474 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Multilateralism vs. Bilateralism: Examining the efficacy of the World Trade Organization and the Doha Round Introduction The age-old debate between the advocates and the detractors of the WTO and similar international trade-mediation organizations has always been about the efficacy of these organizations in todays world. Some claim that these organizations are nothing more than a bureaucratic behemoth; a throwback to the times when an economic superpower could bully and cajole relatively economically weaker nations into acceptance of inferior terms of trade. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Examining The Efficacy Of The World Trade Organization International" essay for you Create order Some also claim that in todays world, with the dominance of regionalism and multilateral agreements within and between economic regions, the notion of economic bullying by a superpower is as outdated as the very organizations that purportedly defend it. The World Trade Organization The WTO came into existence on the 1st of January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Trade Tariff (GATT). The primary objective of the WTO when it came into existence was to supervise and liberalize international trade. However, with the passage of time, it also became a mediatory body in cases of disputes between countries that were party to a WTO multilateral agreement. As of 2008, there were 153 member nations in the WTO, and 30 observer nations, who were awaiting membership. This ensured that when it came to the dispute resolution process, the WTO had sufficient negotiating power, by virtue of the strength of its membership. The Doha Round The Doha Round was the most recent trade negotiation round of the WTO, originating in Doha, Qatar in 2001. It then had subsequent ministerial-level negotiation rounds in Cancun, Mexico in 2003, and Hong Kong in 2005, accompanied by related negotiations in Geneva in 2002, 2004 and 2006, and Paris, France in 2005, and Potsdam, Germany in 2007. Objective: The overall objective of this round of the negotiations was to lower trade barriers around the world, and increase international trade. The specific agenda of the Doha Round encompassed 20 topics, with the following 3 main issues: Agriculture The Doha Round was dominated by discussions over agriculture. Agriculture is particularly important for developing countries, as a vast majority of the population in developing countries lives in rural (and primarily agricultural) areas. The first proposal in Qatar in 2001 called for the end agreement to commit to substantial improvements in market access; reductions (and ultimate elimination) of all forms of export subsidies; and substantial reductions in trade-distorting support.  [1] The European Union and developing countries, led by Brazil and India pressed the United States of America to reduce trade-distorting support to domestic agriculture. USA insisted that the EU and developing countries limit the number of import-sensitive and special products that were exempt from cuts, and that they substantially reduce tariffs. However, disagreements still abound over these contentious issues, and were one of the main reasons for the eventual failure of the Doha Round. Non-Agricultural Market Access This was meant to address the case of pharmaceutical products in case of health emergencies in developing countries. Under the terms of the TRIPS (Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), countries or companies with an patent to produce a particular pharmaceutical drug were to compulsorily make them available to developing countries in case of an emergency, such as during the SARS outbreak, or the H1N1 epidemic. The Doha Round aimed to clarify some of the provisions of the TRIPS, as many developing nations felt the language wasnt clear enough. Special Differential Treatment In the first Doha Round, the ministers had affirmed that developing countries would be accorded special and differential treatment as compared to developed countries. However, there was a divide along the developed and developing countries on this issue. Developing countries wanted to negotiate changes on the SD provisions, and speed up deadlines, whereas the developed countries wanted time to study the SD provisions, and open-ended deadlines. Outcome: Talks in Geneva in July 2008 eventually stalled and broke down, after USA and an assortment of developing countries led by India and China failed to reach a compromise on agricultural import rules. In particular, there was insoluble disagreement between India and the USA over the special safeguard mechanism (SSM), which was meant to protect farmers in developing countries from price, falls or import surges, by allowing the governments of these countries to import a special tariff on agricultural products. Multilateralism Bilateralism The definitions of multilateralism and bilateralism are manifold. For the purposes of this paper, we will limit our definition based on the number of countries party to the agreement: in case of bilateralism, there are only 2 countries involved in a trade agreement, whereas in the case of multilateralism, there are 3 or more countries party to the agreement. Advantages of Multilateralism Bilateralism Multilateralism has often been called the weapon of choice for the developing country. While an economically weaker nation may be bullied by a stronger nation into accepting terms of trade that are not entirely beneficial to the weaker nation in a bilateral agreement, this would not take place in a multilateral trade agreement. By forming a trade bloc, weaker nations can band together to increase their collective bargaining power, and therefore force the erstwhile stronger nation into at least considering equitable terms of trade. In case of a multilateral agreement, the economic size of a country (in theory) fails to have any bearing on the outcome of any trade negotiation, as it is balanced by the collective economic strength of the other negotiating nations. In 2010, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the USA attempted to pass a law to cancel a 30-year federal import-tariff subsidy on corn-ethanol imported from Brazil. This would ensure that corn-ethanol would now b e more expensive as compared to other sources of energy, leading to a drop in imports, directly affecting the Brazilian industry. As Brazil did not possess the economic clout to take on USA directly, it took the case to the WTO, who then stepped in to mediate in the negotiation. Had Brazil not been a part of the WTO, it would have been forced to accept the American terms, and suffer losses at home due to the vagaries of an economic super-power with far greater bargaining power. Multilateral agreements can help in far more than simply serving as a stronger bargaining tool. They can also protect countries from dumping situations, such as when Taiwan was dumping plastic retail bags in the USA at prices far below cost to create artificial competition, and drive out competitors from the market. Due to the WTOs strict Anti-Dumping Agreements, the USA was able to issue stringent import tariffs on these products, and prevent the situation from escalating further. However, despite the emergence of high profile multilateral organizations like the WTO and UN, most trade negotiation is still performed at the bilateral level. Bilateralism affords nations a degree of flexibility and ease of negotiation not accorded by the compromise driven system of multilateralism. In addition to this, bilateralism allows disparities in power, resources and technology to be exploited by the stronger nation to their advantage, thereby allowing them to dictate the terms of trade, unlike in multilateralism, where the one country one vote rule applies. One of the best examples would be the Canada-USA free trade agreement, which has shaped the open trading system in North America. Disadvantages of multilateralism bilateralism While obviously both multilateralism and bilateralism present many advantages, there are inherent disadvantages to both systems. In the case of multilateralism, negotiations can often be protracted to the point where they are no longer relevant to the current world economic situation. The best example would be the Doha Round, where although negotiations began in 2001, they could not be resolved even after 7 years! Multilateralism also removes the element of bullying from the negotiation, which while benefiting the weaker nation removes the strategic advantage of the nation with the stronger bargaining power. In case of bilateralism, the disadvantage is the polar opposite of multilateralism. While it benefits the country with stronger bargaining power, the country with lesser bargaining power is forced to accept inferior terms of trade in the course of the negotiation. Conclusion While both multilateralism and bilateralism have a unique set of advantages and disadvantages, it is clear that they are suitable to be applied in very different cases. Therefore, we could say, in theory, multilateralism suits developing countries, as it affords them a platform to band together, and negotiate for better terms of trade, whereas bilateralism on the other hand better suits developed countries, as they would have far greater bargaining power to mould terms of trade to their advantage. However, this conclusion is based purely on theory, assuming those non-economic factors such as technology, military power and other socio-political factors are not taken into consideration when defining the bargaining power of a country. In reality, all these factors make trade negotiation a complex blend of both multilateralism and bilateralism.

Personal Debt Management Example

Essays on Personal Debt Management Essay Bankruptcy Declaration Task: Bankruptcy Declaration Introduction This is a legal proceeding whereby individuals can have a fresh way of starting finance. It can work well in some cases as a process of solving financial issues especially when done at the right time. However, it may not provide answers to all problems related to finance hence, may not be the right step for everyone. It has numerous merits and shortcomings associated with it. There are alternatives to it which can be applied. These among other factors such as debt payment will be looked into. Advantages of filing bankruptcy According to Ventura (2008), it is a â€Å"discharge† of debts in that the legal obligation to debt payment is eliminated. This enables the restoration of utility service for the fact of non-payment of bills incurred before. The creditors, therefore, are prohibited from pursuing the bankrupt individual or his property. The incomes received are not subject to payment of debt. The debtor,, therefore, is protected from fore closure thus giving the debtor breathing space. Disadvantages of filing bankruptcy It is only allowed once after every six years of application. It also eliminates some right of secured creditors. The collaterals acquired cannot be kept unless payments for them are ongoing. This means that house, car or other items that are under debt can no longer be withheld by the bankrupt individual. By so doing, one looses credit cards. Non essential positions are also lost. It brings about the inability to obtain loans and mortgages for some time. One cannot become a director of limited companies despite one being denied tax refund by the federal government based on the bankruptcy. It comes with an embarrassment and not all debts are discharged. The filling process comes at a cost. Attorneys levy a fee on this service depending on the type of bankruptcy to be filed. Hence it is advisable to sought alternatives to filing bankruptcy. Alternatives to filing bankruptcy Shumway (2001) argued that Judgement proof is one of the basic alternatives that involve taking of no actions at all. Mostly when one has a small income, when the creditor sues them, they can’t find anything to legally hold due to lack of it. Another alternative to this maybe calling the creditors; this makes the debtor to appear not to be shunning away from the situation but being frank. Therefore, calling and convincing the creditors about the financial status can help design remedies from their own ideologies. The debtor may consider chalking out the budget as an alternative by looking into the monthly income and expenses. As a result, a wider understanding of the problem can be attained thereby avoiding bankruptcy. Research by Nathalie and Stewart (2005) supports that a balance transfer can come handy rather than filing bankruptcy from higher rate loans to lower rate loans. Refinancing of loans with better terms may apply in such a case. Another alternative maybe negotiations and settlement of debt, which requires confidence to face the debtors for a fresh repayment plan. Credit counselling services may be sought for especially from non profit organisations or the web; making of formal proposals by individual voluntary arrangement on the way of resettlement instead of filling bankruptcy. Conclusion Considering the above disadvantages of filling bankruptcy and alternatives, it is not advisable for one to file bankruptcy. Besides, it is unethical to fail to pay debts. This is because various alternatives to this are available other than the disadvantages associated with the failure to pay debts. Negotiations are important in case one cannot pay their debts. Choosing to file bankruptcy subjects the debtor to more harm than good. Father, there are ways of going about the problem apart from filling bankruptcy. References Shumway, T. (2001). Forecasting Bankruptcy More Accurately. The Journal of Business, 74(1). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/209665 Ventura, J. (2008). The Bankruptcy Handbook: Everything You Need to Know to Avoid Bankruptcy, Get Rid of Debt, and Rebuild Your Credit. California, CA: Kaplan Publishing. Nathalie, M. Stewart, P. (2005). J.k. Lassers the New Bankruptcy Law And You. New Jersey, NJ: John Wiley Sons.

Explaining The Pathophysiology Of Asthma †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Explaining The Pathophysiology Of Asthma. Answer: Introduction Asthmarefers to a chronic inflammatory disease that occurs in the airways and is a commoninflammatory disease that affects the airwaysof the lungs.This condition is primarily characterized by recurring and variable symptoms such as, bronchospasm, reversibleairflow obstruction, chest tightness, coughing, andshortness of breath. These episodes are found to occur several times per day or week. Depending on the physiological condition of the individual suffering from it, these symptoms often worsen at specific time of the day (Bonini and Usmani 2015). Although, childhood asthma and wheezing are non-synonymous terms, they most often create similar outcomes among children. This report will discuss a case study on the occurrence of paediatric asthma in a child, Jessica, aged 5 years old. It will also elaborate on the pathophysiology of the disease and illustrate the common signs and symptoms, thereby relating them to the case study. Pathophysiology of the illness/disease Asthma is a direct manifestation of chronic inflammation that occurs in the conducting region of the airways. This inflammation commonly occurs in the bronchi and the bronchioles. This subsequently leads to an elevation in contractibility of the smooth muscles that are present near and around the airways. The aforementioned factors often contribute to bouts of airway narrowing, which in turn contributes to symptoms related to wheezing (Mahr, Malka and Spahn 2013). Airway hyperresponsiveness state is a characteristic functional abnormality of paediatric asthma and leads to narrowing of the airways due to a stimulus. Hyperresponsiveness most often occurs due to a viral infection and consists of an elevated sensitivity of the airways, to an external agent (Price et al. 2013). In this case scenario, it is evident Jessicas family have three pets, two long-haired dogs and one short-haired cat. Pet dander and hair are composed of even microscopic particles and flecks of dead skin, shed by the dogs, cats or other animals with feathers and furs. These skin and hair bits act as triggers and lead to hypersensitivity in the airways. According to research evidences, higher rates of allergies to cats are reported by individuals (Huang et al. 2013). The breathing allergens often decline the ability of the lungs to function in an appropriate manner, which in turn worsens the respiratory symptoms (Konradsen et al. 2014).Exposure to endogenous and exogenous factors such as, allergens and the increased viscosity of the mucus that lines the epithelium is found to modulate function of the cilia. Thus, the fact that Jessica has three pets can be attributed to onset of mechanisms that influenced the airway hyperresponsiveness and caused inflammation of her airways. Bronchoconstriction can be defined as the dominant physiological event that leads to subsequent interfering with the airways. In cases of acute exacerbation of paediatric asthma, the smooth muscles of the bronchi contracts rapidly to narrow the airways, thereby responding to exposure to a range of stimuli (Carraro et al. 2013). Jessicas diagnosis to seasonal asthma can be attributed to her shift to the suburbs. This made her more susceptible to exposure to a range of external agents such as, pollen, dust or fumes that might have resulted in an increase in the population of T helper 1 and 2 cells. In addition, generation of Th2 cytokines were also triggered by the allergens that lead to IgE overproduction, increase in eosinophil and bronchoconstriction. Furthermore, exposure to a range of allergens in the household and the new locality to which the patient Jessica shifted to, might have contributed to mast cell activation that releases bronchoconstrictor mediators, such as, histamine, prostaglandin D2, and cytokines (Boulet and OByrne 2015). Inflammatory cell infiltration has a probability of intraepithelial and subepithelial cell inflammatory cell accumulation (Manuyakorn, Howarth and Holgate 2013). The innate and adaptive immune systems play a considerable role in the onset and regulation of inflammation in the airways. In particular, research studies have found strong relation between inflammation and an imbalance between the Th1 and Th2 cytokines (Yuan et al. 2013). Furthermore, onset of paediatric asthma can be related to an increase or shift towards Th2 cytokine-like disease. This occur either in the form of an underexpression of Th1 or overexpression of Th2. In addition, the airway inflammation in the patient Jessica might also represent a loss of balance between the two opposite populations, composed of Th lymphocytes (Th 1 and Th2) (Farahani et al. 2014). Furthermore, the allergic inflammation that resulted in the onset of paediatric asthma might have been mediated by the family of cytokines by Th2 cells. This statement can be further validated by the fact that the immune system of infants and children are skewed towards generation of Th2 cytokines (Cho and Norman 2013). Two signs/symptoms Wheezing sounds during auscultation- Upon conducting an auscultation of the patient Jessica, with the help of a stethoscope, wheezing sounds were heard from her heart and lungs. This procedure was performed with the aim of examining the respiratory and circulatory system of the patient. Hence, the major symptom can was presented by Jessica in the form of whistled, or high-pitched sounds that were produced, during breathing. The sounds were most commonly heard when she exhaled. This continuous, coarse sound was produced due to narrowing of the respiratory airways (Bener et al. 2014). Obstruction of certain parts of the respiratory system might have contributed to such sounds in the patient. This symptom can be correlated to the manifestation of asthmatic conditions due to the fact that mucus accumulation, airway inflammation and tightening of the muscles can lead to a narrowing of the airways, thereby leading to the production of wheezing sounds. Upon getting exposed to a range of asthmatic triggers, such as pollutants, allergen, and pet dander, hypersensitive reactions are seen in the sensitive airways. These in turn get red and inflamed, thereby contributing to tightening of the air muscles (Esposito et al. 2014). This is often manifested in the form of excess mucus or phlegm production that narrows the bronchi and makes it difficult for an asthmatic individual to breathe. Wheezing has been associated with asthma in children who have been suffering from the health abnormality for a prolonged period of time (Tapiainen et al. 2016). Thus, the audible wheezes in the upper zone can be attributed to blockage of the upper part of the respiratory system. The audible wheezes that are heard can also be accompanied due to chest tightness and shortness of breath, the most common symptoms of asthma. Hence, the turbulent flow of air through the narrowed segments of the extrathoracic airways is responsible for producing a whistling noise . Airflow through the compressed or narrowed regions of the bronchi and bronchioles become turbulent, which in turn leads to vibrations in the walls of the airways (Silvestri et al. 2015). This vibration leads to the production of wheezing sounds, the primary symptom presented by Jessica. Increased respiratory rate- The typical respiratory rate for a healthy individual, aged 6 years is approximately in the range of 18-25 breathes per minute. However, upon admission, the patient Jessica showed elevated respiratory rate, 36 bpm. This condition suggests presence of symptoms that pertain to tachypnea. This symptom was presented in the form of abnormal breathing. This breathing condition refers to a physiological state where the breathing is fast and often shallow, due to accumulation of excess carbon dioxide in the body (Ozkiraz et al. 2013). Bronchial asthma, the disorder presented by Jessica occurred due to obstruction of the breathing pathways. This in turn was mediated by several allergens (Nievas and Anand 2013). The fact that the patient was susceptible to exposure to a range of pollutants, allergens and animal hair, she was at an increased likelihood of suffering from tachypnea, which increased the breathing rate. Presence of prolonged asthma can be associated with loss of adventitious breath sounds, thereby contributing to rapid breathing, in addition to high-pitched wheezing sounds (Kim et al. 2014). Hence, an inflammation of the respiratory tract, in association with release of inflammatory cytokines might have resulted in rapid breathing in the patient. This symptom is indicative of respiratory problem, persistent in the patient. Hence, it can be stated that the respiratory distress caused due to inflammation and narrowing of the airways are primarily responsible for tachypnea/rapid breathing symptoms in Jessica. Conclusion To conclude, the discussions presented above help in confirming the occurrence of asthma in the patient Jessica. The patient reported several signs and symptoms that are directly related to the inflammation of the airways. A reduction in the diameter of the bronchial tubes caused adventitious lung sounds that occur due to airflow through compressed airways. The immune system of the patient played a major role in the pathogenesis of the condition, by controlling the release of Th1, Th2 and other cytokines. Furthermore, hyperresponsiveness to pet dander, and other external agents in the suburbs, such as, pollen and pollutants, increased the susceptibility of the patient to suffer from asthma. These factors acted as major triggers that led to the development of paediatric asthma symptoms. Furthermore, inflammation of the skin, and development of learning and cognitive disabilities were also related to the asthmatic symptoms in the patient Jessica. References Bener, A., Ehlayel, M.S., Bener, H.Z. and Hamid, Q., 2014. The impact of Vitamin D deficiency on asthma, allergic rhinitis and wheezing in children: An emerging public health problem.Journal of family community medicine,21(3), p.154. Bonini, M. and Usmani, O.S., 2015. The role of the small airways in the pathophysiology of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.Therapeutic advances in respiratory disease,9(6), pp.281-293. Boulet, L.P. and OByrne, P.M., 2015. Asthma and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in athletes.New England Journal of Medicine,372(7), pp.641-648. Carraro, S., Giordano, G., Reniero, F., Carpi, D., Stocchero, M., Sterk, P.J. and Baraldi, E., 2013. Asthma severity in childhood and metabolomic profiling of breath condensate.Allergy,68(1), pp.110-117. Cho, C.E. and Norman, M., 2013. Cesarean section and development of the immune system in the offspring.American Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology,208(4), pp.249-254. Esposito, S., Galeone, C., Lelii, M., Longhi, B., Ascolese, B., Senatore, L., Prada, E., Montinaro, V., Malerba, S., Patria, M.F. and Principi, N., 2014. Impact of air pollution on respiratory diseases in children with recurrent wheezing or asthma.BMC pulmonary medicine,14(1), p.130. Farahani, R., Sherkat, R., Hakemi, M.G., Eskandari, N. and Yazdani, R., 2014. Cytokines (interleukin-9, IL-17, IL-22, IL-25 and IL-33) and asthma.Advanced biomedical research,3, p.127. Huang, C., Hu, Y., Liu, W., Zou, Z. and Sundell, J., 2013. Pet-keeping and its impact on asthma and allergies among preschool children in Shanghai, China.Chinese Science Bulletin,58(34), pp.4203-4210. Kim, M.J., Yoo, J.H., Jung, J.A. and Byun, S.Y., 2014. The effects of inhaled albuterol in transient tachypnea of the newborn.Allergy, asthma immunology research,6(2), pp.126-130. Konradsen, J.R., Nordlund, B., Onell, A., Borres, M.P., Grnlund, H. and Hedlin, G., 2014. Severe childhood asthma and allergy to furry animals: Refined assessment using molecular?based allergy diagnostics.Paediatric Allergy and Immunology,25(2), pp.187-192. Mahr, T.A., Malka, J. and Spahn, J.D., 2013, May. Inflammometry in paediatric asthma: a review of fractional exhaled nitric oxide in clinical practice. InAllergy and asthma proceedings(Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 210-219). OceanSide Publications, Inc. Manuyakorn, W., Howarth, P.H. and Holgate, S.T., 2013. Airway remodelling in asthma and novel therapy.Asian Pacific journal of allergy and immunology,31(1), p.3. Nievas, I.F.F. and Anand, K.J., 2013. Severe acute asthma exacerbation in children: a stepwise approach for escalating therapy in a pediatric intensive care unit.The journal of pediatric pharmacology and therapeutics,18(2), pp.88-104. Ozkiraz, S., Gokmen, Z., Boke, S.B., Kilicdag, H., Ozel, D. and Sert, A., 2013. Lactate and lactate dehydrogenase in predicting the severity of transient tachypnea of the newborn.The Journal of Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Medicine,26(12), pp.1245-1248. Price, M.M., Oskeritzian, C.A., Falanga, Y.T., Harikumar, K.B., Allegood, J.C., Alvarez, S.E., Conrad, D., Ryan, J.J., Milstien, S. and Spiegel, S., 2013. A specific sphingosine kinase 1 inhibitor attenuates airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in a mast celldependent murine model of allergic asthma.Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology,131(2), pp.501-511. Silvestri, M., Franchi, S., Pistorio, A., Petecchia, L. and Rusconi, F., 2015. Smoke exposure, wheezing, and asthma development: A systematic review and meta?analysis in unselected birth cohorts.Pediatric pulmonology,50(4), pp.353-362. Tapiainen, T., Aittoniemi, J., Immonen, J., Jylkk, H., Meinander, T., Nuolivirta, K., Peltola, V., Salo, E., Seuri, R., Walle, S.M. and Korppi, M., 2016. Finnish guidelines for the treatment of laryngitis, wheezing bronchitis and bronchiolitis in children.Acta Paediatrica,105(1), pp.44-49. Yuan, Y., Yang, B., Ye, Z., Zhang, M., Yang, X., Xin, C., Lin, M. and Huang, P., 2013. Sceptridium ternatum extract exerts antiasthmatic effects by regulating Th1/Th2 balance and the expression levels of leukotriene receptors in a mouse asthma model.Journal of ethnopharmacology,149(3), pp.701-706.